Philosophers stopped talking about the ideas or concepts one may have present in one's mind and started talking about the "mental language" and terms used to employ these concepts.

In the early twentieth century philosophers of language e. Ayer, Bertrand Russell, G. Moore thought that analyzing language would bring about the arrival of meaning, objectivity, and ultimately, truth concerning external reality.

In this tradition, it was thought that truth was obtained when linguistic terms stood in a proper correspondence relation to non-linguistic objects this can be called " representationalism ".

The thought was that in order for a statement or proposition to be true it must give facts which correspond to what is actually present in reality.

This is called the correspondence theory of truth and is to be distinguished from a neo-pragmatic conception of truth.

There were many philosophical inquiries during the mid-twentieth century which began to undermine the legitimacy of the methodology of the early Anglo-analytic philosophers of language.

Quine in Word and Object , [6] originally published in , attacked the notion of our concepts having any strong correspondence to reality.

Quine argued for ontological relativity which attacked the idea that language could ever describe or paint a purely non-subjective picture of reality.

More specifically, ontological relativity is the thesis that the things we believe to exist in the world are wholly dependent on our subjective, "mental languages".

A 'mental language' is simply the way words which denote concepts in our minds are mapped to objects in the world.

The above argument is reminiscent of the theme in neopragmatism against the picture theory of language , the idea that the goal of inquiry is to represent reality correctly with one's language.

A second critically influential philosopher to the neo-pragmatist is Thomas Kuhn who argued that our languages for representing reality, or what he called "paradigms", are only as good as they produce possible future experiments and observations.

Kuhn, being a philosopher of science, argued in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [7] that "scientific progress" was a kind of a misnomer; for Kuhn, we make progress in science whenever we throw off old scientific paradigms with their associated concepts and methods in favor of new paradigms which offer novel experiments to be done and new scientific ontologies.

For Kuhn 'electrons' exist just so much as they are useful in providing us with novel experiments which will allow us to uncover more about the new paradigm we have adopted.

Kuhn believes that different paradigms posit different things to exist in the world and are therefore incommensurable with each other. Another way of viewing this is that paradigms describe new languages, which allow us to describe the world in new ways.

Kuhn was a fallibilist; he believed that all scientific paradigms e. Instead the pragmatic maxim is the heart of his pragmatism as a method of experimentational mental reflection [] arriving at conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstances—a method hospitable to the formation of explanatory hypotheses, and conducive to the use and improvement of verification.

Peirce's pragmatism, as method and theory of definitions and conceptual clearness, is part of his theory of inquiry, [] which he variously called speculative, general, formal or universal rhetoric or simply methodeutic.

Critical common-sensism, [] treated by Peirce as a consequence of his pragmatism, is his combination of Thomas Reid's common-sense philosophy with a fallibilism that recognizes that propositions of our more or less vague common sense now indubitable may later come into question, for example because of transformations of our world through science.

It includes efforts to work up in tests genuine doubts for a core group of common indubitables that vary slowly if at all. In " The Fixation of Belief " , Peirce described inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubt born of surprise, disagreement, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, belief being that on which one is prepared to act.

That let Peirce frame scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal, quarrelsome, or hyperbolic doubt , which he held to be fruitless.

Peirce sketched four methods of settling opinion, ordered from least to most successful:. Peirce held that, in practical affairs, slow and stumbling ratiocination is often dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research, [] which in turn should not be trammeled by the other methods and practical ends; reason's "first rule" [] is that, in order to learn, one must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry.

Scientific method excels over the others finally by being deliberately designed to arrive—eventually—at the most secure beliefs, upon which the most successful practices can be based.

Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the sake of belief's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential conduct correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method.

Insofar as clarification by pragmatic reflection suits explanatory hypotheses and fosters predictions and testing, pragmatism points beyond the usual duo of foundational alternatives: deduction from self-evident truths, or rationalism ; and induction from experiential phenomena, or empiricism.

Based on his critique of three modes of argument and different from either foundationalism or coherentism , Peirce's approach seeks to justify claims by a three-phase dynamic of inquiry:.

Thereby, Peirce devised an approach to inquiry far more solid than the flatter image of inductive generalization simpliciter , which is a mere re-labeling of phenomenological patterns.

Peirce's pragmatism was the first time the scientific method was proposed as an epistemology for philosophical questions. A theory that succeeds better than its rivals in predicting and controlling our world is said to be nearer the truth.

This is an operational notion of truth used by scientists. Peirce extracted the pragmatic model or theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic and refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address problems about the nature of scientific reasoning.

Abduction, deduction, and induction make incomplete sense in isolation from one another but comprise a cycle understandable as a whole insofar as they collaborate toward the common end of inquiry.

In the pragmatic way of thinking about conceivable practical implications, every thing has a purpose, and, as possible, its purpose should first be denoted.

Abduction hypothesizes an explanation for deduction to clarify into implications to be tested so that induction can evaluate the hypothesis, in the struggle to move from troublesome uncertainty to more secure belief.

No matter how traditional and needful it is to study the modes of inference in abstraction from one another, the integrity of inquiry strongly limits the effective modularity of its principal components.

There he also reviewed plausibility and inductive precision issues of critique of arguments. Abductive or retroductive phase.

Guessing, inference to explanatory hypotheses for selection of those best worth trying. From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, on the basis of tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis.

Every inquiry, whether into ideas, brute facts, or norms and laws, arises from surprising observations in one or more of those realms and for example at any stage of an inquiry already underway.

All explanatory content of theories comes from abduction, which guesses a new or outside idea so as to account in a simple, economical way for a surprising or complicated phenomenon.

The modicum of success in our guesses far exceeds that of random luck, and seems born of attunement to nature by developed or inherent instincts, especially insofar as best guesses are optimally plausible and simple in the sense of the "facile and natural", as by Galileo 's natural light of reason and as distinct from "logical simplicity".

Its general rationale is inductive: it succeeds often enough and it has no substitute in expediting us toward new truths.

A simple but unlikely guess, if not costly to test for falsity, may belong first in line for testing. A guess is intrinsically worth testing if it has plausibility or reasoned objective probability, while subjective likelihood , though reasoned, can be misleadingly seductive.

Guesses can be selected for trial strategically, for their caution for which Peirce gave as example the game of Twenty Questions , breadth, or incomplexity.

Inductive phase. Evaluation of the hypothesis, inferring from observational or experimental tests of its deduced consequences.

The long-run validity of the rule of induction is deducible from the principle presuppositional to reasoning in general that the real "is only the object of the final opinion to which sufficient investigation would lead"; [] in other words, anything excluding such a process would never be real.

Induction involving the ongoing accumulation of evidence follows "a method which, sufficiently persisted in", will "diminish the error below any predesignate degree".

Three stages:. Peirce drew on the methodological implications of the four incapacities —no genuine introspection, no intuition in the sense of non-inferential cognition, no thought but in signs, and no conception of the absolutely incognizable—to attack philosophical Cartesianism , of which he said that: [].

No lone individual can reasonably hope to fulfill philosophy's multi-generational dream. When "candid and disciplined minds" continue to disagree on a theoretical issue, even the theory's author should feel doubts about it.

It trusts to "a single thread of inference depending often upon inconspicuous premisses" — when, instead, philosophy should, "like the successful sciences", proceed only from tangible, scrutinizable premisses and trust not to any one argument but instead to "the multitude and variety of its arguments" as forming, not a chain at least as weak as its weakest link, but "a cable whose fibers", soever "slender, are sufficiently numerous and intimately connected".

It renders many facts "absolutely inexplicable, unless to say that 'God makes them so' is to be regarded as an explanation" [] — when, instead, philosophy should avoid being "unidealistic", [] misbelieving that something real can defy or evade all possible ideas, and supposing, inevitably, "some absolutely inexplicable, unanalyzable ultimate", which explanatory surmise explains nothing and so is inadmissible.

Peirce divided metaphysics into 1 ontology or general metaphysics, 2 psychical or religious metaphysics, and 3 physical metaphysics.

Peirce was a scholastic realist , declaring for the reality of generals as early as In his "The Logic of Relatives" he wrote:. I formerly defined the possible as that which in a given state of information real or feigned we do not know not to be true.

But this definition today seems to me only a twisted phrase which, by means of two negatives, conceals an anacoluthon. We know in advance of experience that certain things are not true, because we see they are impossible.

Peirce retained, as useful for some purposes, the definitions in terms of information states, but insisted that the pragmaticist is committed to a strong modal realism by conceiving of objects in terms of predictive general conditional propositions about how they would behave under certain circumstances.

Peirce believed in God, and characterized such belief as founded in an instinct explorable in musing over the worlds of ideas, brute facts, and evolving habits—and it is a belief in God not as an actual or existent being in Peirce's sense of those words , but all the same as a real being.

Peirce also argued that the will is free [] and see Synechism that there is at least an attenuated kind of immortality.

Peirce held the view, which he called objective idealism , that "matter is effete mind, inveterate habits becoming physical laws". He held that fortuitous variation which he also called "sporting" , mechanical necessity, and creative love are the three modes of evolution modes called "tychasm", "anancasm", and "agapasm" [] of the cosmos and its parts.

He found his conception of agapasm embodied in Lamarckian evolution ; the overall idea in any case is that of evolution tending toward an end or goal, and it could also be the evolution of a mind or a society; it is the kind of evolution which manifests workings of mind in some general sense.

He said that overall he was a synechist, holding with reality of continuity, [] especially of space, time, and law.

Peirce outlined two fields, "Cenoscopy" and "Science of Review", both of which he called philosophy. Both included philosophy about science. In he arranged them, from more to less theoretically basic, thus: [].

Peirce placed, within Science of Review, the work and theory of classifying the sciences including mathematics and philosophy.

His classifications, on which he worked for many years, draw on argument and wide knowledge, and are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time.

Now logical terms are of three grand classes. The first embraces those whose logical form involves only the conception of quality, and which therefore represent a thing simply as "a —.

They regard an object as it is in itself as such quale ; for example, as horse, tree, or man. These are absolute terms. Peirce, But also see "Quale-Consciousness", , in CP 6.

The very idea of probability and of reasoning rests on the assumption that this number is indefinitely great. Logic is rooted in the social principle.

I define a Sign as anything which is so determined by something else, called its Object, and so determines an effect upon a person, which effect I call its Interpretant, that the latter is thereby mediately determined by the former.

My insertion of "upon a person" is a sop to Cerberus, because I despair of making my own broader conception understood.

Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery.

Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine with reference to the art of discovery.

Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.

I will also take the liberty of substituting "reality" for "existence. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist who founded pragmatism.

Cambridge, Massachusetts , U. Milford, Pennsylvania , U. Logic mathematics statistics [1] [2] philosophy metrology [3] chemistry experimental psychology [4] economics [5] linguistics [6] history of science.

John Dewey Fabian Franklin [7] Benjamin Ives Gilman Joseph Jastrow Christine Ladd Allan Marquand Thorstein Veblen [7].

Philosophical logic metaphysics epistemology. George Boole Georg Cantor Duns Scotus G. Hegel Immanuel Kant Benjamin Peirce Thomas Reid Herbert Spencer Richard Whately.

Louis Couturat John Deely Gilles Deleuze John Dewey Umberto Eco William James Christine Ladd C. Mills Ernst Schröder Alfred Tarski.

B:x : Brent, Joseph , Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life , 2nd edition, page x [9] CDPT : Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms CP x. Peirce , volume x, page y.

Cambridge, where Peirce was born and raised, New York City, where he often visited and sometimes lived, and Milford, where he spent the later years of his life with his second wife Juliette.

See also: Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography. The Peirce arrow , symbol for " neither Main article: Categories Peirce.

Sign relation relational complex. Code Confabulation. Lexical Modality Representation. Salience Semiosis Semiosphere. Umwelt Value. Biosemiotics Cognitive semiotics.

Morris Charles S. Peirce Susan Petrilli Augusto Ponzio Ferdinand de Saussure. Thomas Sebeok Michael Silverstein Eero Tarasti Vladimir Toporov Jakob von Uexküll Victoria Lady Welby.

Structuralism Post-structuralism. Deconstruction Postmodernism. The Journal of Speculative Philosophy series — , including Questions concerning certain Faculties claimed for Man Some Consequences of Four Incapacities Grounds of Validity of the Laws of Logic: Further Consequences of Four Incapacities Main article: Semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce.

Main article: Inquiry. Hypothesis Abduction. Some noted articles and lectures Illustrations of the Logic of Science — : inquiry, pragmatism, statistics, inference The Fixation of Belief How to Make Our Ideas Clear The Doctrine of Chances The Probability of Induction The Order of Nature Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis The Harvard lectures on pragmatism What Pragmatism Is Issues of Pragmaticism Pragmatism MS in The Essential Peirce , 2.

See also: Inquiry. Some noted articles The Monist Metaphysical Series — The Architecture of Theories The Doctrine of Necessity Examined The Law of Mind Man's Glassy Essence Evolutionary Love Immortality in the Light of Synechism MS.

Main article: Classification of the sciences Peirce. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. George Herbert Mead. The Taming of Chance.

A Universe of Chance. Cambridge University Press. Annals of Statistics. Physics Today. Bibcode : PhT Archived from the original on January 12, In his brilliant but troubled life, Peirce was a pioneer in both metrology and philosophy.

Peirce — : The first American experimental psychologist". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences.

December Contemporary Pragmatism. Nöth, Winfried Peirce , 4:xxxviii, find "Eighty-nine". Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life 2 ed. Indiana University Press.

Peirce had strong, though unorthodox, religious convictions. Although he was a communicant in the Episcopal church for most of his life, he expressed contempt for the theologies, metaphysics, and practices of established religions.

Peirce Project Newsletter. See Burks, Arthur W. Peirce, The new elements of mathematics " PDF. Book Review.

Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. Also Houser, Nathan. Dictionary of American Biography. Webster's Biographical Dictionary. Springfield, Massachusetts.

Peirce , 1:xvii, find phrase "One episode". On Peirce the astronomer, see Lenzen's chapter. Peirce , 5:xxviii—xxix, find "Allison". The Math Gene.

Basic Books. Peirce , 6, first paragraph. The Metaphysical Club. London: Flamingo. Peirce developed multiple methods for doing formal logic.

Stephen Toulmin's The Uses of Argument inspired scholars in informal logic and rhetoric studies although it is actually an epistemological work. James and Dewey were empirical thinkers in the most straightforward fashion: experience is the ultimate test and experience is what needs to be explained.

They were dissatisfied with ordinary empiricism because in the tradition dating from Hume, empiricists had a tendency to think of experience as nothing more than individual sensations.

To the pragmatists, this went against the spirit of empiricism: we should try to explain all that is given in experience including connections and meaning, instead of explaining them away and positing sense data as the ultimate reality.

Radical empiricism , or Immediate Empiricism in Dewey's words, wants to give a place to meaning and value instead of explaining them away as subjective additions to a world of whizzing atoms.

The "Chicago Club" including Whitehead, Mead and Dewey. Pragmatism is sometimes called American Pragmatism because so many of its proponents were and are Americans.

The two were supposed, he said, to have so little to do with each other, that you could not possibly occupy your mind with them at the same time. The world of concrete personal experiences to which the street belongs is multitudinous beyond imagination, tangled, muddy, painful and perplexed.

The world to which your philosophy-professor introduces you is simple, clean and noble. The contradictions of real life are absent from it.

Schiller 's first book, "Riddles of the Sphinx", was published before he became aware of the growing pragmatist movement taking place in America.

In it, Schiller argues for a middle ground between materialism and absolute metaphysics. The result of the split between these two explanatory schemes that are comparable to what William James called tough-minded empiricism and tender-minded rationalism, Schiller contends, is that mechanistic naturalism cannot make sense of the "higher" aspects of our world freewill, consciousness, purpose, universals and some would add God , while abstract metaphysics cannot make sense of the "lower" aspects of our world the imperfect, change, physicality.

While Schiller is vague about the exact sort of middle ground he is trying to establish, he suggests metaphysics as a tool that can aid inquiry and is only valuable insofar as it actually does help in explanation.

In the second half of the twentieth century, Stephen Toulmin argued that the need to distinguish between reality and appearance only arises within an explanatory scheme and therefore that there is no point in asking what 'ultimate reality' consists of.

More recently, a similar idea has been suggested by the postanalytical philosopher Daniel Dennett , who argues that anyone who wants to understand the world has to adopt the intentional stance and acknowledge both the 'syntactical' aspects of reality i.

Radical Empiricism gives interesting answers to questions about the limits of science if there are any, the nature of meaning and value and the workability of reductionism.

These questions feature prominently in current debates about the relationship between religion and science , where it is often assumed - most pragmatists would disagree - that science degrades everything that is meaningful into 'merely' physical phenomena.

Both John Dewey in Nature and Experience and half a century later Richard Rorty in his monumental Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature argued that much of the debate about the relation of the mind to the body results from conceptual confusions.

They argue instead that there is no need to posit the mind or mindstuff as an ontological category. Pragmatists disagree over whether philosophers ought to adopt a quietist or a naturalist stance toward the mind-body problem.

The former Rorty among them want to do away with the problem because they believe it's a pseudo-problem, whereas the latter believe that it is a meaningful empirical question.

Pragmatism sees no fundamental difference between practical and theoretical reason, nor any ontological difference between facts and values.

Both facts and values have cognitive content: knowledge is what we should believe; values are hypotheses about what is good in action.

Pragmatist ethics is broadly humanist because it sees no ultimate test of morality beyond what matters for us as humans. Good values are those for which we have good reasons, viz.

The pragmatist formulation pre-dates those of other philosophers who have stressed important similarities between values and facts such as Jerome Schneewind and John Searle.

William James tried to show the meaningfulness of some kinds of spirituality but, like other pragmatists, refused to see religion as the basis of meaning or morality.

William James' contribution to ethics, as laid out in his essay The Will to Believe has often been misunderstood as a plea for relativism or irrationality.

On its own terms it argues that ethics always involves a certain degree of trust or faith and that we cannot always wait for adequate proof when making moral decisions.

Moral questions immediately present themselves as questions whose solution cannot wait for sensible proof. A moral question is a question not of what sensibly exists, but of what is good, or would be good if it did exist.

Wherever a desired result is achieved by the co-operation of many independent persons, its existence as a fact is a pure consequence of the precursive faith in one another of those immediately concerned.

A government, an army, a commercial system, a ship, a college, an athletic team, all exist on this condition, without which not only is nothing achieved, but nothing is even attempted.

James Of the classical pragmatists, John Dewey wrote most extensively about morality and democracy. Edel In his classic article Three Independent Factors in Morals Dewey , he tried to integrate three basic philosophical perspectives on morality: the right, the virtuous and the good.

He held that while all three provide meaningful ways to think about moral questions, the possibility of conflict among the three elements cannot always be easily solved.

Anderson, SEP. Dewey also criticized the dichotomy between means and ends which he saw as responsible for the degradation of our everyday working lives and education, both conceived as merely a means to an end.

He stressed the need for meaningful labor and a conception of education that viewed it not as a preparation for life but as life itself. Dewey [] ch.

Dewey was opposed to other ethical philosophies of his time, notably the emotivism of Alfred Ayer.

Dewey envisioned the possibility of ethics as an experimental discipline, and thought values could best be characterized not as feelings or imperatives, but as hypotheses about what actions will lead to satisfactory results or what he termed consummatory experience.

A further implication of this view is that ethics is a fallible undertaking, since human beings are frequently unable to know what would satisfy them.

A recent pragmatist contribution to meta-ethics is Todd Lekan's "Making Morality" Lekan Lekan argues that morality is a fallible but rational practice and that it has traditionally been misconceived as based on theory or principles.

Instead, he argues, theory and rules arise as tools to make practice more intelligent. John Dewey's Art as Experience , based on the William James lectures he delivered at Harvard , was an attempt to show the integrity of art, culture and everyday experience.

Field, IEP Art, for Dewey, is or should be a part of everyone's creative lives and not just the privilege of a select group of artists.

He also emphasizes that the audience is more than a passive recipient. Dewey's treatment of art was a move away from the transcendental approach to aesthetics in the wake of Immanuel Kant who emphasized the unique character of art and the disinterested nature of aesthetic appreciation.

A notable contemporary pragmatist aesthetician is Joseph Margolis. He defines a work of art as "a physically embodied, culturally emergent entity", a human "utterance" that isn't an ontological quirk but in line with other human activity and culture in general.

He emphasizes that works of art are complex and difficult to fathom, and that no determinate interpretation can be given.

Both Dewey and James have investigated the role that religion can still play in contemporary society, the former in A Common Faith and the latter in The Varieties of Religious Experience.

It should be noted, from a general point of view, that for William James, something is true only insofar as it works.

Thus, the statement, for example, that prayer is heard may work on a psychological level but a will not actually help to bring about the things you pray for b may be better explained by referring to its soothing effect than by claiming prayers are actually heard.

As such, pragmatism isn't antithetical to religion but it isn't an apologetic for faith either. Joseph Margolis , in Historied Thought, Constructed World California, , makes a distinction between "existence" and "reality".

He suggests using the term "exists" only for those things which adequately exhibit Pierce's Secondness : things which offer brute physical resistance to our movements.

In this way, such things which affect us, like numbers, may be said to be "real", though they do not "exist". Margolis suggests that God, in such a linguistic usage, might very well be "real", causing believers to act in such and such a way, but might not "exist".

Neopragmatism is a broad contemporary category used for various thinkers, some of them radically opposed to one another.

The name neopragmatist signifies that the thinkers in question incorporate important insights of, and yet significantly diverge from, the classical pragmatists.

This divergence may occur either in their philosophical methodology many of them are loyal to the analytic tradition or in actual conceptual formation C.

Lewis was very critical of Dewey; Richard Rorty dislikes Peirce. Important analytical neopragmatists include the aforementioned Lewis, W.

Quine , Donald Davidson , Hilary Putnam and the early Richard Rorty. Stanley Fish , the later Rorty and Jürgen Habermas are closer to continental thought.

Neoclassical pragmatism denotes those thinkers who consider themselves inheritors of the project of the classical pragmatists. Sidney Hook and Susan Haack known for the theory of foundherentism are well-known examples.

Not all pragmatists are easily characterized. It is probable, considering the advent of postanalytic philosophy and the diversification of Anglo-American philosophy, that more philosophers will be influenced by pragmatist thought without necessarily publicly committing themselves to that philosophical school.

Daniel Dennett , a student of Quine's, falls into this category, as does Stephen Toulmin , who arrived at his philosophical position via Wittgenstein , whom he calls "a pragmatist of a sophisticated kind" foreword for Dewey in the edition, p.

Another example is Mark Johnson whose embodied philosophy Lakoff and Johnson shares its psychologism, direct realism and anti-cartesianism with pragmatism.

Conceptual pragmatism is a theory of knowledge originating with the work of the philosopher and logician Clarence Irving Lewis.

The epistemology of conceptual pragmatism was first formulated in the book Mind and the World Order: Outline of a Theory of Knowledge.

It is often seen as opposed to structural problems connected to the French Critical Theory of Pierre Bourdieu.

In the twentieth century, the movements of logical positivism and ordinary language philosophy have similarities with pragmatism. Like pragmatism, logical positivism provides a verification criterion of meaning that is supposed to rid us of nonsense metaphysics.

This further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia's guidelines. Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced , topical , reliable , and notable further reading suggestions are given; removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate.

Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article. December Learn how and when to remove this template message.

Links to related articles. Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics. Action Color Culture Design Music Film Cosmology Education Environment Geography Happiness History Human nature Humor Feminism Language Law Life Literature Mathematics Medicine Healthcare Psychiatry Mind Pain Psychology Perception Philosophy Religion Science Physics Chemistry Biology Sexuality Social science Business Culture Economics Politics Society Space and time Sport Technology Artificial intelligence Computer science Engineering Information War.

Schools of thought. Ancient Western Medieval Renaissance Early modern Modern Contemporary. Agriculturalism Confucianism Legalism Logicians Mohism Chinese naturalism Neotaoism Taoism Yangism Chan.

Aristotelianism Atomism Cynicism Cyrenaics Eleatics Eretrian school Epicureanism Hermeneutics Ionian Ephesian Milesian Megarian school Neoplatonism Peripatetic Platonism Pluralism Presocratic Pyrrhonism Pythagoreanism Neopythagoreanism Sophistic Stoicism.

Mazdakism Mithraism Zoroastrianism Zurvanism. Christian Augustinianism Scholasticism Thomism Scotism Occamism Renaissance humanism. Korean Confucianism Edo neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism.

Cartesianism Kantianism Neo-Kantianism Hegelianism Marxism Spinozism. Anarchism Classical Realism Liberalism Collectivism Conservatism Determinism Dualism Empiricism Existentialism Foundationalism Historicism Holism Humanism Anti- Idealism Absolute British German Objective Subjective Transcendental Individualism Kokugaku Materialism Modernism Monism Naturalism Natural law Nihilism New Confucianism Neo-scholasticism Pragmatism Phenomenology Positivism Reductionism Rationalism Social contract Socialism Transcendentalism Utilitarianism.

Critical theory Deconstruction Existentialism Feminist Frankfurt School New Historicism Hermeneutics Neo-Marxism Phenomenology Posthumanism Postmodernism Post-structuralism Social constructionism Structuralism Western Marxism.

Kyoto School Objectivism Postcritique Russian cosmism more Formalism Institutionalism Aesthetic response.

Consequentialism Deontology Virtue. Compatibilism Determinism Hard Incompatibilism Hard Libertarianism. Atomism Dualism Idealism Monism Naturalism Realism.

Empiricism Fideism Naturalism Particularism Rationalism Skepticism Solipsism. Behaviorism Emergentism Eliminativism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Objectivism Subjectivism.

Absolutism Particularism Relativism Nihilism Skepticism Universalism. Action Event Process. Anti-realism Conceptualism Idealism Materialism Naturalism Nominalism Physicalism Realism.

By region Related lists Miscellaneous. African Ethiopian Amerindian Aztec Eastern Chinese Egyptian Indian Indonesian Iranian Japanese Korean Taiwanese Pakistani Vietnamese Middle Eastern Western American Australian British Czech Danish French German Greek Italian Polish Romanian Russian Slovene Spanish Turkish.

Outline Index Years Problems Schools Glossary Philosophers Movements Publications. Portal Category Book.

Academic Attentional Attitude polarization Belief Cognitive list Collective narcissism Confirmation Congruence Cryptomnesia Cultural Ethnocentrism Filter bubble Homophily In-group favoritism Magical thinking Media Observer-expectancy Observational error Selective exposure Selective perception Self-deception Self-fulfilling prophecy Clever Hans effect , placebo effect , wishful thinking Status quo Stereotyping.

Activism Argument Argumentum ad populum Attitude change Censorship Charisma Circular reporting Cognitive dissonance Critical thinking Crowd manipulation Cultural dissonance Deprogramming Echo chamber Education religious , values Euphemism Excommunication Fearmongering Historical revisionism Ideological repression Indoctrination Media manipulation Media regulation Mind control Missionaries Moral entrepreneurship Persuasion Polite fiction Political engineering Propaganda Propaganda model Proselytism Psychological manipulation Psychological warfare Religious conversion forced Religious persecution Religious uniformity Revolutions Rhetoric Self-censorship Social change Social control Social engineering Social influence Social progress Suppression of dissent Systemic bias Woozle effect.

Axioms tacit assumptions Conceptual framework Epistemology outline Evidence anecdotal , scientific Explanations Faith fideism Gnosis Intuition Meaning-making Memory Metaknowledge Methodology Observation Observational learning Perception Reasoning fallacious , logic Revelation Testimony Tradition folklore Truth consensus theory , criteria World disclosure.

Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz. Authoritarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Collectivism Colonialism Communalism Communism Communitarianism Conservatism Constitutionalism Distributism Environmentalism Extremism Fanaticism Fascism Feminism Fundamentalism Globalism Green politics Imperialism Individualism Industrialism Intellectualism Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Masculism Militarism Monarchism Nationalism Pacifism Progressivism Radicalism Reformism Republicanism Sentientism Social democracy Socialism Utilitarianism Veganism.

Philosophical logic. Analysis Ambiguity Argument Belief Bias Credibility Evidence Explanation Explanatory power Fact Fallacy Inquiry Opinion Parsimony Occam's razor Premise Propaganda Prudence Reasoning Relevance Rhetoric Rigor Vagueness.

Constructivism Dialetheism Fictionalism Finitism Formalism Intuitionism Logical atomism Logicism Nominalism Platonic realism Pragmatism Realism.

Analytic philosophy. Epistemology Language Mathematics Science. Aretaic Linguistic. Classical Mathematical Non-classical Philosophical.

Anti-realism Australian realism Descriptivist theory of names Emotivism Functionalism Analytical feminism Logical atomism Logical positivism Analytical Marxism Neopragmatism Neurophilosophy Ordinary language Quietism Scientific structuralism Sense data.

Analysis paradox of analysis Analytic—synthetic distinction Counterfactual Natural kind Reflective equilibrium Supervenience. Actualism Necessity Possibility Possible world Realism Rigid designator.

Noam Chomsky Keith Donnellan Paul Feyerabend Gottlob Frege Ian Hacking Karl Popper Ernest Sosa Barry Stroud Michael Walzer.

Charlie Broad Norman Malcolm G. Moore Graham Priest Bertrand Russell Frank P. Ramsey Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Anscombe J. Austin A. Ayer Michael Dummett Antony Flew Philippa Foot Peter Geach Paul Grice R. Hare Alasdair MacIntyre Derek Parfit Gilbert Ryle John Searle P.

Strawson Richard Swinburne Charles Taylor Bernard Williams Timothy Williamson. Ernest Nagel. Carl Gustav Hempel Hans Reichenbach.

Rudolf Carnap Kurt Gödel Otto Neurath Moritz Schlick. Roderick Chisholm Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett Nelson Goodman Christine Korsgaard Thomas Kuhn Thomas Nagel Robert Nozick Hilary Putnam W.

Quine John Rawls. Robert Brandom Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Adolf Grünbaum John McDowell Ruth Millikan Nicholas Rescher Wilfrid Sellars Bas van Fraassen.

Jerry Fodor David Lewis Jaegwon Kim Saul Kripke Richard Rorty. Robert Audi Peter van Inwagen Alvin Plantinga.

David Chalmers J. Mackie Peter Singer J. James F. Conant Alice Crary Cora Diamond. Category Index. Philosophy of mind. Abstract object Artificial intelligence Chinese room Cognition Cognitive closure Concept Concept and object Consciousness Hard problem of consciousness Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Ingenuity Intelligence Intentionality Introspection Intuition Language of thought Materialism Mental event Mental image Mental property Mental representation Mind Mind—body problem Non-physical entity New mysterianism Pain Perspective-taking Privileged access Problem of other minds Propositional attitude Qualia Tabula rasa Understanding Zombie more Philosophy of biology.

Empiricism Naturalism Pragmatism Reductionism Holism Evolutionary taxonomy. Adaptationism Alternatives to Darwinism Catastrophism Lamarckism Orthogenesis Mutationism Structuralism Spandrel Theistic Vitalism Darwinism Evolutionary epistemology Teleology Tree of life.

Griesemer Paul E. Griffiths David Hull Hans Jonas Philip Stuart Kitcher Tim Lewens Helen Longino Jane Maienschein Roberta Millstein Sandra Mitchell Susan Oyama Alex Rosenberg Michael Ruse Sahotra Sarkar Elliott Sober Kim Sterelny Alfred I.

Tauber Francisco Varela Gerard Verschuuren William C. Francisco J. Wilson Jonas Salk. Philosophy of mind History of biology. Philosophy of science.

Analysis Analytic—synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Scientific law Scientific method Scientific revolution Scientific theory Testability Theory choice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unity of science.

Physics thermal and statistical Motion Chemistry Biology Geography Social science Technology Engineering Artificial intelligence Computer science Information Mind Psychiatry Psychology Perception Space and time.

Alchemy Criticism of science Descriptive science Epistemology Faith and rationality Hard and soft science History and philosophy of science History of science History of evolutionary thought Logic Metaphysics Normative science Pseudoscience Relationship between religion and science Rhetoric of science Science studies Sociology of scientific knowledge Sociology of scientific ignorance.

Philosophers of science by era. Plato Aristotle Stoicism Epicureans. Averroes Avicenna Roger Bacon William of Ockham Hugh of Saint Victor Dominicus Gundissalinus Robert Kilwardby.

Alfred North Whitehead Bertrand Russell Albert Einstein Otto Neurath C. Broad Michael Polanyi Hans Reichenbach Rudolf Carnap Karl Popper Carl Gustav Hempel W.

Quine Thomas Kuhn Imre Lakatos Paul Feyerabend Jürgen Habermas Ian Hacking Bas van Fraassen Larry Laudan Daniel Dennett. Authority control GND : NDL : Categories : Pragmatism Philosophical movements Philosophy of science Empiricism Philosophical schools and traditions Charles Sanders Peirce American philosophy Progressive Era in the United States William James.

Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Use American English from January All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from January Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February Articles with unsourced statements from March Articles with unsourced statements from June Articles with unsourced statements from July Articles with unsourced statements from September Articles with hCards Wikipedia spam cleanup from December Wikipedia further reading cleanup Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers.

Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in. Namespaces Article Talk.

Views Read Edit View history. Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file.

What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item.

Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote. Part of a series on. Plato Kant Nietzsche Buddha Confucius Averroes. Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Legal philosophy Logic Metaphysics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Philosophy of science Political philosophy Social philosophy.

Ancient Pre-Socratic Hellenistic Medieval Modern Early modern Late modern Contemporary. Analytic Neopositivism Ordinary language Continental Existentialism Phenomenology Pragmatism Skepticism Traditions by region African Eastern Chinese Indian Middle-Eastern Egyptian Iranian Western Traditions by school Aristotelian Augustinian Averroist Avicennist Hegelian Kantian Occamist Platonist Neoplatonist Scotist Thomist Traditions by religion Buddhist Christian Humanist Hindu Jain Jewish Judeo-Islamic Islamic Early Islamic Illuminationist Sufi.

Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy. Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers.

Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers. Philosopher Wisdom Women in philosophy. Philosophy portal. List of academic fields Applied sciences Formal sciences Humanities Natural sciences Professions Social sciences.

Research design Research proposal Research question Writing Argument Referencing. Research strategy Interdisciplinary Multimethodology Qualitative Quantitative.

Methodology Action research Art methodology Critical theory Feminism Grounded theory Hermeneutics Historiography Narrative inquiry Phenomenology Pragmatism Scientific method.

Methods Case study Content analysis Descriptive statistics Discourse analysis Ethnography Experiment Field experiment Quasi-experiment Field research Historical method Inferential statistics Interviews Mapping Cultural mapping Phenomenography Secondary research Bibliometrics Literature review Meta-analysis Scoping review Systematic review Scientific modelling Simulation Survey.

Classical pragmatists — [ edit ] Name Lifetime Notes Charles Sanders Peirce. William James. John Dewey. George Herbert Mead.

Josiah Royce. George Santayana. Du Bois. Giovanni Papini. Giovanni Vailati. Hu Shih. Chinese intellectual and reformer, student and translator of Dewey's and advocate of pragmatism in China.

Reinhold Niebuhr. American philosopher and theologian, inserted pragmatism into his theory of Christian realism. Author of What Pragmatism Was , Dewey's New Logic Arthur Fine.

Philosopher of Science who proposed the Natural Ontological Attitude to the debate of scientific realism.

Stanley Fish. Literary and Legal Studies pragmatist. Robert Brandom. A student of Rorty, has developed a complex analytic version of pragmatism in works such as Making It Explicit , Between Saying and Doing , and Perspectives on Pragmatism.

Clarence Irving Lewis. Joseph Margolis. Hilary Putnam. Richard Rorty. Willard van Orman Quine. Mike Sandbothe. Applied Rorty's neopragmatism to media studies and developed a new branch that he called media philosophy.

Richard Shusterman. Jason Stanley. Defends a pragmatist form of contextualism against semantic varieties of contextualism in his Knowledge and Practical Interest.

Stephen Toulmin. Roberto Unger. Sidney Hook. Isaac Levi. Susan Haack. Nicholas Rescher. Cornel West. Wilfrid Sellars.